1. INTRODUCTION:

The invention of antibiotics is the greatest scientific achievement of the 20th century. It has demonstrated outstanding success in both preventing infections during organ transplant heart surgery and treating infectious disorders.Salvarsan was the first antibiotic to be used, and throughout the past century, antibiotic development has seen a significant transformation. With the discovery of penicillin in 1928, the antibiotic golden age began. Apart from their effectiveness, improper antibiotic use has resulted in the emergence of antibiotic resistance.^1,2,3. In essence, antibiotic resistance is now a major problem that threatens human health since it increases mortality and makes it more challenging to treat common infectious diseases.

The main issue with oral, intravenous, and intramuscular antibiotic administration is that they result in faster drug delivery at the site of action, which may lead to antibiotic resistance and toxicity issues.

The main impediment to the healing process is caused by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. As a result, a variety of solutions, such as the nanoparticulate system, have been developed to address these issues. Drug-loaded electrospunnanofibres have been used as an alternative to other nanotechnology-based drug delivery methods, such as nanoparticles and nanoemulsions, because of their high drug loading capacity and effective encapsulation.^4,5

2. NANOFIBRES IN DRUG DELIVERY:

Because of their large surface area, porosity, and small fiber size, nanofibres are excellent materials for drug delivery. Nanofibres provide variety in fibre synthesis, homogeneous drug release at the site of action, and the lightweight fibrous system's flexibility. The solubility of the drug has a significant impact on the adhesion characteristics between the drug and the nanofibres^6-10. The type of polymer has a significant impact on the solvent choice. For stable drug release, hydrophobic drugs are typically combined with hydrophobic polymers, whereas hydrophilic drugs are typically combined with hydrophilic polymers^11-13. Due to the manufacture of nanofibres with a diameter less than 1 µm, electro spinning techniques have become more and more popular^14,15. Numerous benefits, including great therapeutic efficacy at low doses, less toxicity, and minimal side effects, are provided by nanofiber drug delivery systems. Giram et al. (2018) created antimicrobial electrospun nonwoven Eudragit L-100 nanofibrous mats containing Moxifloxacin hydrochloride for quick drug delivery systems and assessed their antibacterial properties. Investigations were also conducted on the morphological, physicochemical, mechanical, and thermal properties. Regarding encapsulation effectiveness and antibacterial potential, positive findings were obtained.

Non-fibrous mats were tested for antibacterial activity against the pathogens Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in both qualitative and quantitative tests. The quantitative antimicrobial assay results revealed that the moxifloxacin hydrochloride-developed mats (EL-100, EL-100 b, and EL-100 c) outperformed the control and EL-100. The agar diffusion method was used for the qualitative analysis. The zone of inhibition expanded as medication concentration increased. As a result, they showed potent antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The in vitro cytotoxicity assay was carried out using the MTT test. The mats were found to be cytotoxic and to promote cell proliferation¹⁶.

With the help of Eudragit S-100 nonwoven fibrous mats, Rade PP et al. (2022) created a metronidazole delivery system with antibacterial activity for therapeutic effect in the colon. Using the electro spinning technique, it was discovered that the average diameters of the manufactured mats fell between 150 and 600nm. ES-100 nonfibrous mats containing 1, 5, 10, and 15% were manufactured. Antibacterial activity against the gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and the gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli was investigated using the agar diffusion method. Metronidazole is a drug that is frequently used to treat infections caused by anaerobic bacteria. On ES-100 nonfibrous mats that were loaded with metronidazole, significant antibacterial activity was observed. As metronidazole concentration increased, the zone of inhibition expanded. Metronidazole was found to be delivered to the target site at a rate of 74% at pH 6.8. Thus, it can be a good approach for antimicrobial study¹⁷.

Gentamycin is bactericidal when used against bacteria such as E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and pseudomonas aeruginosa.^18-20. Compared to other aminoglycosides, gentamycin shows a lower rate of resistance^21-24. Gentamycin toxicity is associated with its ability to enter cells and interfere with protein synthesis ^25-27. Liposomes, a type of lipid-based medication carrier, can be useful^28-30. Therefore, gentamycin loaded liposomes can be employed to improve the accumulation of medication at the site of action and can also solve the issue of nephrotoxicity that may emerge due to numerous daily doses^31,32.

Nelson Monterio (2015) created a gentamycin-loaded liposome on the surface of chitosan nanofibre mesh to demonstrate antibacterial activity. Thiol groups were used to functionalize chitosan nanofiber meshes, and the reaction between the SH groups and maleimide resulted in gentamicin-loaded liposomes being covalently immobilized. Antibacterial activity was tested on Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and pseudomonas aeruginosa. The disc diffusion and broth dilution assays were used to assess activity. The results showed that gentamycin inhibited bacterial growth when released from liposomes attached to the surface of electrospun chitosan NFM. Overall, the findings demonstrated that the developed drug delivery system can be used to treat wounds and eradicate pathogens caused by local infection.

By utilising the acetic acid to solvent in acid technique, ciprofloxacin was integrated into the polyvinyl pyrrolidone polymer matrix. From the solution, transparent antimicrobial films were created. To create non-transparent nanofiber mats for testing a compound's antibacterial activity, the compounds were electrospun. They employed Bacillus subtilis and E. coli¹⁸. A mouse model for in vivo excision skin wound healing confirmed the films' and nanofibres' promising resorptionproperties. Transparent films were found to degrade much more slowly than nanofibers³³.

All infections can be effectively blocked by the skin. It is essential for both maintaining body temperature and acting as protection^34,35. The main issue that arises when the skin is wounded is bacterial infection³⁶. The intricacy of the healing process for wounds is increased by bacterial infections³⁷. Electrospunnanofibres have been found to effectively aid in wound healing. In the current study, ciprofloxacin and silver nanoparticles were placed into an electrospinning process to create janus wound dressings made of PVP and ethyl cellulose. S. aureus and E. coli microorganisms were examined for their potential antibacterial properties. Overall, janusfibres had a potent and long-lasting antibacterial activity, suggesting synergistic actions of both silver and ciprofloxacin.

3. NANOFIBRES IN TISSUE ENGINEERING:

Nanofibres with a high surface area to volume ratio have received a lot of attention in tissue engineering, drug delivery, and other biomedical devices³⁸. Surface functionalized nanofibres have a lot of potential in tissue engineering applications like bone tissue engineering, cartilage tissue engineering, osteochondrial tissue engineering, and so on³⁹.

Prior to the beginning of human clinical trials, the rat calvarial size underwent in vivo testing, which produced scaffolds and established the gold standards in the preclinical setting⁴⁰. The in vivo conditions reflect the scaffolds actual performance in terms of cellular response, cellular rejection, and the production of new tissue⁴¹.

Biocompatible and biodegradable polymers of natural and synthetic origin, such as chitosan, collagen, and gelatin, which have the capacity to boost in-vitro cell growth, are being developed as new scaffolds for tissue engineering⁴². Due to developing technologies that will require biomaterials that are physically and chemically robust, conducting polymers are of great interest in tissue engineering applications. They aid in the growth of tissues and are electrically conductive, making them capable of initiating or stimulating specific cell processes⁴³. Polyaniline (PANI) and polypyrrole (PPy), which have the ability to transport currents in biological environments, are being researched for their potential to locally deliver electrical stimulation to wounded tissue to speed wound healing^44-45. Considering these qualities into account By using an electrospinning technique, Nikolaidis M. G et al. (2010) created blends of poly (lactic acid) and poly(aniline-co-3-aminobenzoic acid) that had been doped with HCL and tested for antimicrobial properties. S. aureus was the microbe utilised in the study.

BacLight was used to research the antibacterial impact of nanofibres on the viability of bacteria. Results of the study showed that there were much less bacteria on the functionalized nanofibers (31%) than on glass or poly (lactic acid), demonstrating their antibacterial potential. The created nanofibres encouraged healthy cell growth and exclusively eliminated harmful bacteria, making them ideal for use in antimicrobial wound dressings. Wound infection is a big worry for those whose immune systems are weakened. Delays in wound closure are brought on by an increase in wound infection^46,47. It is urgently necessary to develop methods for minimising wound infection and further limiting the ability of bacteria to evolve into more drug resistant strains due to the rise in multi-drug resistant bacteria.

Bringing silver ions to the area of action is one approach that could be used in this situation⁴⁸. The wound site receives 3–4 topically administered applications of silver nitrate every day⁴⁹. Additionally, 1% cream or suspension of silver sulfadiazine is used to burns and wounds⁵⁰. Both of these methods, however, do not continuously release silver ions, therefore frequent reapplication of the compound to the wound site is necessary⁵¹.

Silver nanoparticles with a high surface area that permit a wide release of silver ions are thus being investigated for use in wound dressings as a means of preventing bacterial infection.

The cytotoxic effects of the dressings on the host cells must be taken into account when assessing the antibacterial capabilities^52,53.

However, epidermal keratinocytes and dermal fibroblast cells of the skin are shown to be damaged upon exposure to high concentrations of silver ions, despite the fact that the low toxicity of silver ions to mammalian cells is observed in some mammalian cells⁵⁴.

The study report investigated the antibacterial effectiveness and cytotoxicity of silver-based wound dressings, as well as high surface area metallic silver in the form of extremely porous silver nanoparticles incorporated within poly-lactic acid nanofibrous dressings.^55,56.

Staphylococcus aureus and human epidermal keratinocyte co-culture systems were developed for the simultaneous evaluation of antibacterial and cytotoxic effectiveness. For a better understanding of the outcomes of the co-culture system, experiments using S. aureus or human epidermal keratinocytes have been published. Compared to pure PLA control, antibacterial activity indicated that S.aureus bacteria on silver ions grew more slowly.

Although the initial concentration of silver ions within the nanoparticles might be raised, it is not advised unless the wound dressings are extremely diseased. It was found that the amount of released silver ions from both scaffolds was insufficient to kill all bacteria in the solution.

The outcomes showed that pure PLA, AgNP loaded as well as AgMP loaded nanoparticles inhibited the viability and proliferation of human epidermal keratinocytes. S. aureus bacteria were observed to proliferate less quickly on chemicals put on epidermal keratinocytes than on an acellular scaffold. Therefore, it can be investigated in various wound dressings or skin substitutes⁵⁷.

4. NANOFIBRES IN WATER PURIFICATION:

Bacteria and viruses are the primary causes of drinking water contamination in underdeveloped nations⁵⁸. There are almost 1.1 billion individuals who lack access to clean water. Chlorine and a membrane-based water filtration system are used to control microbiological infections. However, the growth in infections with heightened resistance has made this strategy less reliable. Biofouling and viral penetration were discovered to be the main sources of the challenges in water treatment⁵⁹.

Reverse osmosis and other high-energy filtration techniques, such as nanofiltration, have been shown to be effective at removing microorganisms. Low pressure membranes with anti-biofouling and antiviral pathogens are utilised, but because filtering uses a lot of energy, they are becoming more and more popular⁶⁰. The properties of nanofibre filtering media vary in thickness, diameter, and customised pore size, depending on the polymer. Nanobiocides such as metal nanoparticles, antibiotics, and antibacterial agents can be enclosed in dry nanofibres by including them in the polymer solution. The manufacturing of these nanofibres takes place by the electrospinning process⁶¹. These factors were taken into consideration by Zodrow K et al. in 2009 when they created antimicrobial nanofibres and described how they may be used to purify water. The successful production of antimicrobial nanofibers depends on the choice of the right surfactants and polymers. Polymer surfactant interactions have a significant impact on the electrospinning process⁶².

Yoon K et al. (2006) developed a new type of high flux UF/NF medium that can replace conventional porous membranes and provide a significantly higher flux rate for water filtration using an electrospunnanofibrous scaffold and a thin top layer of hydrophilic, water-resistant, but water-permeable chitosan coating⁶³.

5. CONCLUSION:

Numerous resources are being used to research how nanofibres can be used in biomedicine. As a result, there are now more polymers available to be employed in the electrospinning process to create nanofibers. These biocompatible polymers, each of which has a unique set of features, are encouraging scientists to combine diverse polymers that couldn't normally be electrospun directly. The research published by numerous researchers helps us understand how drugs are released for tissue regeneration and identifies the purpose and size of nanofibres that can be further refined for their use in tissue engineering⁶⁴. Antimicrobial nanofibres have drawn the attention of numerous researchers for the development of efficient drug delivery systems due to their substantial surface area. Antimicrobial nanofibres have a proven potential use in the filtration of water. Antimicrobial nanofibres have been found to minimise the viral and bacterial load, which automatically lessens the problem of biofouling.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

The author would like to extend sincere appreciation to Dr.D.Y. Patil Institute of Pharmaceutical science and Research, Pimpri-Pune and Nagpur College of pharmacy, Wanadongri, Hingna road, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India for providing literature survey facility to compile this article.

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Received on 31.01.2023 Modified on 17.07.2023

Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2024; 17(1):427-432.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2024.00067